Numerari from KnowledgeDoor---The scientific calculator with graphing, unit keypads,
complex numbers, constants, advanced functions, user-defined keys, quick copy, and more! Learn more (Link leaves KnowledgeDoor website)

Fluorine

Fluorine Navigation

Other Elements

By Name

By Symbol

By Number

Quantity

Fluorine Quick Reference

Click button to see citations

Notes

Symbol

F

Atomic Number

9

Atomic Weight

Rounded

18.998

for regular calculations

Standard

18.998403162 ± 0.000000005

for precise calculations

Oxidation States

 0

less common

-1

more common

Pauling Electronegativity

3.98

Electron Configuration

Orbital Occupancy

[He] 2s2 2p5

[He] represents the closed-shell electron configuration of helium

Orbital Filling Order

[He] 2s2 2p5

[He] represents the closed-shell electron configuration of helium

Term Symbol

2P3/2

see expanded configuration ...

Ionization Energies

I   (1)

17.4228 eV

II  (2)

34.9708 eV

III (3)

62.7084 eV

IV  (4)

87.1398 eV

see all 9 energies ...

Electron Affinity

3.4011895 ± 0.0000025 eV

27432.446 ± 0.019 cm-1  

Density

gas, 25 °C, 1 atm

1.553 g/L 

liquid, 53.48 K

1.706 g/ml

Molar Volume

solid, the element's solid allotrope existing at the lowest temperature

11.20 cm3/mol

Melting Point

1 atm

53.49 ± 0.01 K

Boiling Point

1 atm

84.958 ± 0.003 K

Thermal Conductivity

gas

400 K, 1 atm

0.0371 W/(m K)

300 K, 1 atm

0.0279 W/(m K)

290 K, 1 atm

0.0269 W/(m K)

280 K, 1 atm

0.0260 W/(m K)

270 K, 1 atm

0.0251 W/(m K)

200 K, 1 atm

0.0184 W/(m K)

see all 41 conductivities ...

Pyykkö Covalent Radius

single bond

64 pm

double bond

59 pm

triple bond

53 pm

Atomic Radius

71 pm

Enthalpy of Fusion

1 atm

5.1 kJ/mol

Enthalpy of Vaporization

1 atm

6.548 kJ/mol

Quantity

Fluorine Atomic Structure

Notes

Ionization Energies

I   (1)

17.4228 eV

II  (2)

34.9708 eV

III (3)

62.7084 eV

IV  (4)

87.1398 eV

see all 9 energies ...

Electron Affinity

3.4011895 ± 0.0000025 eV

27432.446 ± 0.019 cm-1  

Electron Binding Energies

(1s)

696.7 eV

Electron Configuration

Orbital Occupancy

[He] 2s2 2p5

[He] represents the closed-shell electron configuration of helium

Orbital Filling Order

[He] 2s2 2p5

[He] represents the closed-shell electron configuration of helium

Term Symbol

2P3/2

see expanded configuration ...

Clementi-Raimondi Effective Nuclear Charge

1s

Orbital Exponent

8.6501

ζ

Principle Quantum Number

1

n

Effective Nuclear Charge

8.6501

Zeff = ζ × n

2s

Orbital Exponent

2.5638

ζ

Principle Quantum Number

2

n

Effective Nuclear Charge

5.1276

Zeff = ζ × n

2p

Orbital Exponent

2.5500

ζ

Principle Quantum Number

2

n

Effective Nuclear Charge

5.1000

Zeff = ζ × n

Screening Percentage

43.2%

Fluorescence Yields

ωK

0.010

Quantity

Fluorine Physical Properties

Notes

Density

gas, 25 °C, 1 atm

1.553 g/L 

liquid, 53.48 K

1.706 g/ml

Molar Mass

Rounded

18.998 g/mol

for regular calculations

Standard

18.998403162 ± 0.000000005 g/mol

for precise calculations

Molar Volume

solid, the element's solid allotrope existing at the lowest temperature

11.20 cm3/mol

Physical Form

pale yellow gas

Dielectric Constant

-332 °F

1.5 

53.48 K

1.49

Gram Atomic Volume

15 cm3

Quantity

Fluorine Atomic Interaction

Notes

Oxidation States

 0

less common

-1

more common

Pauling Electronegativity

3.98

Mulliken-Jaffe Electronegativity

hybridsp3

4.30

hybrid14.3% s

3.91

orbitalp

3.35

Sanderson Electronegativity

4.000

Allred-Rochow Electronegativity

4.10

Configuration Energy

electron volt units

24.80 eV

Pauling units

 4.193  

Allen Electronegativity

4.193

Allred Electronegativity

oxidation state: 1

3.98

Boyd-Edgecombe Electronegativity

4.00

Ghosh-Gupta Electronegativity

10.0378 eV

Nagle Electronegativity

4.23

Pearson Absolute Electronegativity

10.41 eV

Smith Electronegativity

oxidation state: -1

4.05

Chemical Hardness

7.01 eV

Cohesive Energy

per mole

81.0 kJ/mol  

per atom

 0.84 eV/atom

Quantity

Fluorine Thermodynamics

Notes

Melting Point

1 atm

53.49 ± 0.01 K

Boiling Point

1 atm

84.958 ± 0.003 K

Thermal Conductivity

gas

400 K, 1 atm

0.0371 W/(m K)

300 K, 1 atm

0.0279 W/(m K)

290 K, 1 atm

0.0269 W/(m K)

280 K, 1 atm

0.0260 W/(m K)

270 K, 1 atm

0.0251 W/(m K)

200 K, 1 atm

0.0184 W/(m K)

see all 41 conductivities ...

Triple Point

temperature

53.477 ± 0.002 K

pressure

0.252 ± 0.005 kPa

Critical Point

temperature

144.32 ± 0.05 K

pressure

5.215 MPa

Vapor Pressure

-188.3 °C

100 kPa

-204.3 °C

10 kPa

-214.8 °C

1 kPa

see all 22 pressures ...

Enthalpy of Fusion

1 atm

5.1 kJ/mol

Enthalpy of Vaporization

1 atm

6.548 kJ/mol

Isobaric Molar Heat Capacity

298.15 K, 1 bar

31.304 J/(mol K)

Isobaric Specific Heat Capacity

298.15 K, 1 bar

0.824 J/(g K)

Quantity

Fluorine Identification

Notes

CAS Number

7782-41-4

DOT Number

1045

compressed

1045

refrigerated liquid (cryogenic liquid)

9192

ICSC Number

0046

RTECS Number

LM6475000

UN Number

1045

Quantity

Fluorine Atomic Size

Notes

Atomic Radius

71 pm

Orbital Radius

39.6 pm

Pyykkö Covalent Radius

single bond

64 pm

double bond

59 pm

triple bond

53 pm

Cordero Covalent Radius

57 pm

Shannon-Prewitt Crystal Radius

ion charge: -1

coordination number: 2

114.5 pm

coordination number: 3

116 pm  

coordination number: 4

117 pm  

coordination number: 6

119 pm  

ion charge: +7, coordination number: 6

 22 pm  

Shannon-Prewitt Effective Ionic Radius

ion charge: -1

coordination number: 2

128.5 pm

coordination number: 3

130 pm  

coordination number: 4

131 pm  

coordination number: 6

133 pm  

ion charge: +7, coordination number: 6

  8 pm  

Pauling Empirical Crystal Radius

ion charge: -1

136 pm

Pauling Univalent Radius

ion charge: +1

 19 pm

ion charge: -1

136 pm

Batsanov Crystallographic Van Der Waals Radius

1.5×102 pm

Batsanov Equilibrium Van Der Waals Radius

165 pm

Bondi Van Der Waals Radius

147 pm

Pauling Van Der Waals Radius

135 pm

Slater Atomic-Ionic Radius

50 pm

Quantity

Fluorine Crystal Structure

Notes

Allotropes

allotrope

α-fluorine

symbol

αF

allotrope

β-fluorine

symbol

βF

Nearest Neighbor Distance

300 K, 1 atm

144 pm

Quantity

Fluorine History

Notes

Discovery

date of discovery

1886

discoverer

Henri Moissan

birth

September 28, 1852

death

February 20, 1907

location of discovery

Paris, France

Origin of Element Name

origin

fluere

origin description

property—Latin for to flow

Origin of Element Symbol

symbol: F

origin

fluorine

origin description

element name

U.S. Towns Named After Elements

Fluorine, Nevada

Formerly Used or Proposed Element Names and Symbols

name

fluoricum

no matching symbol specified

symbol

Fl

Quantity

Fluorine Abundances

Notes

Earth's Crust

5.85×102 ppm

Earth's Mantle

25 ppm

primitive mantle

Bulk Earth

10 ppm

Ocean Water

1.4 ppm

Metalliferous Ocean Sediment

Basal

466 ppm

River Water

0.1 ppm

U.S. Coal

98 ppm

Human Body

2.6 g

based on a 70 kg "reference man"

Human Bone

2×103 ppm to 12×103 ppm

Human Hair

<15 ppm

Human Kidney

0.04 ppm to 10 ppm

Human Liver

0.22 ppm to 7 ppm

Human Muscle

0.05 ppm

Solar System

843

number of atoms for every 106 atoms of silicon

Sun

4.56 ± 0.3

base 10 log of the number of atoms for every 1012 atoms of hydrogen

Meteorites

4.46 ± 0.06

base 10 log of the number of atoms for every 1012 atoms of hydrogen

Quantity

Fluorine Nomenclature

Notes

Element Names in Other Languages

French

fluor

German

Fluor

Italian

fluoro

Spanish

flúor

Portuguese

fluor

Anions or Anionic Substituent Groups

fluoride (general)

F-, fluoride(1-)

Cations or Cationic Substituent Groups

fluorine (general)

F+, fluorine(1+)

Ligands

F-, fluorido(1-)

Heteroatomic Anion

fluorate

'a' Term—Substitutive Nomenclature

fluora

'y' Term—Chains and Rings Nomenclature

fluory

References    (Click the button next to a value above to see complete citation information for that entry)

Albright, Thomas A., and Jeremy K. Burdett. Problems in Molecular Orbital Theory. New York: Oxford University Press, 1992.

Allen, Leland C. "Electronegativity Is the Average One-Electron Energy of the Valence-Shell Electrons in Ground-State Free Atoms." Journal of the American Chemical Society, volume 111, number 25, 1989, pp 9003–9014. doi:10.1021/ja00207a003

Allen, Leland C. "Electronegativity Is the Average One-Electron Energy of the Valence-Shell Electrons in Ground-State Free Atoms." Journal of the American Chemical Society, volume 111, number 25, 1989, pp. 9003–9014. doi:10.1021/ja00207a003

Allred, A. L. "Electronegativity Values from Thermochemical Data." Journal of Inorganic and Nuclear Chemistry, volume 17, number 3-4, 1961, pp. 215–221. doi:10.1016/0022-1902(61)80142-5

Allred, A. L., and E. G. Rochow. "A Scale of Electronegativity Based on Electrostatic Force." Journal of Inorganic and Nuclear Chemistry, volume 5, number 4, 1958, pp. 264–268. doi:10.1016/0022-1902(58)80003-2

Anders, Edward, and Nicolas Grevesse. "Abundances of the Elements: Meteoritic and Solar." Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, volume 53, number 1, 1989, pp. 197–214. doi:10.1016/0016-7037(89)90286-X

Barsan, Michael E., editor. NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards. Cincinnati, Ohio: NIOSH Publications, 2007.

Batsanov, S. S. "Van der Waals Radii of Elements." Inorganic Materials, volume 37, number 9, 2001, pp. 871–885. See abstract

Blondel, Christophe, Christian Delsart, and Fabienne Goldfarb. "Electron Spectrometry at the μeV Level and the Electron Affinities of Si and F." Journal of Physics B: Atomic, Molecular and Optical Physics, volume 34, number 9, 2001, pp. L281–L288. doi:10.1088/0953-4075/34/9/101

Bondi, A. "Van der Waals Volumes and Radii." The Journal of Physical Chemistry, volume 68, number 3, 1964, pp. 441–451. doi:10.1021/j100785a001

Bowen, H. J. M. Environmental Chemistry of the Elements. London: Academic Press, Inc., 1979.

Boyd, Russell J., and Kenneth E. Edgecombe. "Atomic and Group Electronegativities from the Electron-Density Distributions of Molecules." Journal of the American Chemical Society, volume 110, number 13, 1988, pp 4182–4186. doi:10.1021/ja00221a014

Bratsch, Steven G. "Revised Mulliken Electronegativities: I. Calculation and Conversion to Pauling Units." Journal of Chemical Education, volume 65, number 1, 1988, pp. 34–41. doi:10.1021/ed065p34

Cardona, M., and L. Ley, editors. Photoemission in Solids I: General Principles. Berlin: Springer-Verlag, 1978.

Clementi, E., and D. L. Raimondi. "Atomic Screening Constants from SCF Functions." Journal of Chemical Physics, volume 38, number 11, 1963, pp. 2686–2689. doi:10.1063/1.1733573

Cohen, E. Richard, David R. Lide, and George L. Trigg, editors. AlP Physics Desk Reference, 3rd edition. New York: Springer-Verlag New York, Inc., 2003.

Connelly, Neil G., Ture Damhus, Richard M. Hartshorn, and Alan T. Hutton. Nomenclature of Inorganic Chemistry: IUPAC Recommendations 2005. Cambridge: RSC Publishing, 2005.

Cordero, Beatriz, Verónica Gómez, Ana E. Platero-Prats, Marc Revés, Jorge Echeverría, Eduard Cremades, Flavia Barragán, and Santiago Alvarez. "Covalent Radii Revisited." Dalton Transactions, number 21, 2008, pp 2832–2838. doi:10.1039/b801115j

Cronan, D. S. "Basal Metalliferous Sediments from the Eastern Pacific." Geological Society of America Bulletin, volume 87, number 6, 1976, pp. 928–934. doi:10.1130/0016-7606(1976)87<928:BMSFTE>2.0.CO;2

de Podesta, Michael. Understanding the Properties of Matter, 2nd edition. London: Taylor & Francis, 2002.

Donohue, Jerry. The Structures Of The Elements, 2nd edition. Malabar, Florida: Robert E. Krieger Publishing Company, 1974.

Dronskowski, Richard. Computational Chemistry of Solid State Materials. Weinheim, Germany: WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, 2005.

Ebbing, Darrell D., and Steven D. Gammon. General Chemistry, 8th edition. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2005.

Emsley, John. Nature's Building Blocks: An A-Z Guide to the Elements. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003.

Emsley, John. The Elements, 3rd edition. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998.

Firestone, Richard B. Table of Isotopes, 8th edition, volume 2. Edited by Virginia S. Shirley, with assistant editors Coral M. Baglin, S. Y. Frank Chu, and Jean Zipkin. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1996.

Galasso, Francis S. Structure and Properties of Inorganic Solids. Oxford: Pergamon Press, 1970.

Ghosh, Dulal C., and Kartick Gupta. "A New Scale Of Electronegativity Of 54 Elements Of Periodic Table Based On Polarizability Of Atoms." Journal of Theoretical and Computational Chemistry, volume 5, number 4, 2006, pp. 895–911. doi:10.1142/S0219633606002726

Greenwood, N. N., and A. Earnshaw. Chemistry of the Elements, 2nd edition. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann, 1997.

Guminski, C. "The F-Hg system (Fluorine-Mercury)." Journal of Phase Equilibria, volume 22, number 5, 2001, pp. 578–581.

Gwyn Williams. Electron Binding Energies. http://www.jlab.org/~gwyn/ebindene.html. Accessed on April 30, 2010.

Ho, C. Y., R. W. Powell, and P. E. Liley. "Thermal Conductivity of the Elements: A Comprehensive Review." Journal of Physical and Chemical Reference Data, volume 3, supplement 1, 1974, pp. I–1 to I–796.

Huheey, James E., Ellen A. Keiter, and Richard L Keiter. Inorganic Chemistry: Principles of Structure and Reactivity, 4th edition. New York: HarperCollins College Publishers, 1993.

Ihde, Aaron J. The Development of Modern Chemistry. New York: Dover Publications, Inc., 1984.

International Labour Organization (ILO). International Chemical Safety Card for Fluorine. http://www.ilo.org/legacy/english/protection/safework/cis/products/icsc/dtasht/_icsc00/icsc0046.htm. Accessed on May 4, 2010.

International Labour Organization (ILO). International Chemical Safety Card for Fluorine. http://www.ilo.org/legacy/english/protection/safework/cis/products/icsc/dtasht/_icsc00/icsc0046.htm. Accessed on May 5, 2010.

King, H. W. "Temperature-Dependent Allotropic Structures of the Elements." Bulletin of Alloy Phase Diagrams, volume 3, number 2, 1982, pp. 275–276. doi:10.1007/BF02892394

Kittel, Charles. Introduction to Solid State Physics, 8th edition. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, Inc, 2005.

Li, Y.-H., and J. E. Schoonmaker. "Chemical Composition and Mineralogy of Marine Sediments." pp. 1–36 in Sediments, Diagenesis, and Sedimentary Rocks. Edited by Fred T. Mackenzie. Oxford: Elsevier Ltd., 2005.

Liboff, Richard L. Introductory Quantum Mechanics, 3rd edition. Reading, MA: Addison Wesley Longman, Inc., 1998.

Lide, David R., editor. CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, 88th edition. Boca Raton, Florida: Taylor & Francis Group, 2008.

Mann, Joseph B., Terry L. Meek, and Leland C. Allen. "Configuration Energies of the Main Group Elements." Journal of the American Chemical Society, volume 122, number 12, 2000, pp. 2780–2783. doi:10.1021/ja992866e

Manuel, O., editor. Origin of Elements in the Solar System: Implications of Post-1957 Observations. New York: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 2000.

Marshall, James L. Discovery of the Elements: A Search for the Fundamental Principles of the Universe, 2nd edition. Boston, MA: Pearson Custom Publishing, 2002.

Martin, W. C. "Electronic Structure of the Elements." The European Physical Journal C — Particles and Fields, volume 15, number 1–4, 2000, pp. 78–79. doi:10.1007/BF02683401

McDonough, W. F. "Compositional Model for the Earth's Core." pp. 547–568 in The Mantle and Core. Edited by Richard W. Carlson. Oxford: Elsevier Ltd., 2005.

Mechtly, Eugene A. "Properties of Materials." pp. 4–1 to 4–33 in Reference Data For Engineers: Radio, Electronics, Computer, and Communications. By Mac E. Van Valkenburg, edited by Wendy M. Middleton. Woburn, MA: Butterworth-Heinemann, 2002. doi:10.1016/B978-075067291-7/50006-6

Miessler, Gary L., and Donald A. Tarr. Inorganic Chemistry, 3rd edition. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall, 2004.

Nagle, Jeffrey K. "Atomic Polarizability and Electronegativity." Journal of the American Chemical Society, volume 112, number 12, 1990, pp. 4741–4747. doi:10.1021/ja00168a019

National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH). International Chemical Safety Card for Fluorine. http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/ipcsneng/neng0046.html. Accessed on May 5, 2010.

National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH). International Chemical Safety Card for Fluorine. http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/ipcsneng/neng0046.html. Accessed on May 4, 2010.

National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH). The Registry of Toxic Effects of Chemical Substances for Fluorine. http://www.cdc.gov/niosh-rtecs/lm62ccf8.html. Accessed on May 5, 2010.

Orem, W. H., and R. B. Finkelman. "Coal Formation and Geochemistry." pp. 191–222 in Sediments, Diagenesis, and Sedimentary Rocks. Edited by Fred T. Mackenzie. Oxford: Elsevier Ltd., 2005.

Oxtoby, David W., H. P. Gillis, and Alan Campion. Principles of Modern Chemistry, 6th edition. Belmont, CA: Thomson Brooks/Cole, 2008.

Palme, H., and H. Beer. "Meteorites and the Composition of the Solar Photosphere." pp. 204–206 in Landolt–Börnstein—Group VI: Astronomy and Astrophysics. Edited by H. H. Voigt. New York: Springer–Verlag, 1993. doi:10.1007/10057790_59

Palme, H., and Hugh St. C. O'Neill. "Cosmochemical Estimates of Mantle Composition." pp. 1–38 in The Mantle and Core. Edited by Richard W. Carlson. Oxford: Elsevier Ltd., 2005.

Pauling, Linus. The Nature of the Chemical Bond, 3rd edition. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1960.

Pearson, Ralph G. "Absolute Electronegativity and Hardness: Application to Inorganic Chemistry." Inorganic Chemistry, volume 27, number 4, 1988, pp 734–740. doi:10.1021/ic00277a030

Pekka Pyykkö. Self-Consistent, Year-2009 Covalent Radii. http://www.chem.helsinki.fi/~pyykko/Radii09.pdf. Accessed on November 20, 2010.

Prohaska, Thomas, Johanna Irrgeher, Jacqueline Benefield, John K. Böhlke, Lesley A. Chesson, Tyler B. Coplen, Tiping Ding, Philip J. H. Dunn, Manfred Gröning, Norman E. Holden, Harro A. J. Meijer, Heiko Moossen, Antonio Possolo, Yoshio Takahashi, Jochen Vogl, Thomas Walczyk, Jun Wang, Michael E. Wieser, Shigekazu Yoneda, Xiang-Kun Zhu, and Juris Meija. "Standard Atomic Weights of the Elements 2021 (IUPAC Technical Report)." Pure and Applied Chemistry, volume 94, number 5, 2022, pp. 573–600. doi:10.1515/pac-2019-0603

Pyykkö, Pekka, and Michiko Atsumi. "Molecular Double-Bond Covalent Radii for Elements Li-E112." Chemistry - A European Journal, volume 15, number 46, 2009, pp. 12770–12779. doi:10.1002/chem.200901472

Pyykkö, Pekka, and Michiko Atsumi. "Molecular Single-Bond Covalent Radii for Elements 1-118." Chemistry - A European Journal, volume 15, number 1, 2009, pp. 186–197. doi:10.1002/chem.200800987

Pyykkö, Pekka, Sebastian Riedel, and Michael Patzschke. "Triple-Bond Covalent Radii." Chemistry - A European Journal, volume 11, number 12, 2005, pp. 3511–3520. doi:10.1002/chem.200401299

Ringnes, Vivi. "Origin of the Names of Chemical Elements." Journal of Chemical Education, volume 66, number 9, 1989, pp. 731–738. doi:10.1021/ed066p731

Rohrer, Gregory S. Structure and Bonding in Crystalline Materials. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001.

Sanderson, R. T. Simple Inorganic Substances. Malabar, FL: Robert E. Krieger Publishing Co., Inc., 1989.

Sanderson, R. T. "Principles of Electronegativity: Part I. General Nature." Journal of Chemical Education, volume 65, number 2, 1988, pp. 112–118. doi:10.1021/ed065p112

Sanderson, R. T. Polar Covalence. New York: Academic Press, Inc., 1983.

Sansonetti, J. E., and W. C. Martin. "Handbook of Basic Atomic Spectroscopic Data." Journal Of Physical And Chemical Reference Data, volume 34, number 4, 2005, pp. 1559–2259. doi:10.1063/1.1800011

Scientific Group Thermodata Europe (SGTE). Pure Substances: Part 1—Elements and Compounds from AgBr to Ba3N2. Edited by I. Hurtado and D. Neuschütz. Berlin: Springer-Verlag, 1999. doi:10.1007/10652891_3

Shannon, R. D. "Revised Effective Ionic Radii and Systematic Studies of Interatomic Distances in Halides and Chalcogenides." Acta Crystallographica Section A, volume 32, number 5, 1976, pp. 751–767. doi:10.1107/S0567739476001551

Silbey, Robert J., Robert A. Alberty, and Moungi G. Bawendi. Physical Chemistry, 4th edition. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2005.

Singman, Charles N. "Atomic Volume and Allotropy of the Elements." Journal of Chemical Education, volume 61, number 2, 1984, pp. 137–142. doi:10.1021/ed061p137

Slater, J. C. "Atomic Radii in Crystals." The Journal of Chemical Physics, volume 41, number 10, 1964, pp. 3199–3204. doi:10.1063/1.1725697

Smith, Derek W. "Electronegativity in Two Dimensions: Reassessment and Resolution of the Pearson-Pauling Paradox." Journal of Chemical Education, volume 67, number 11, 1990, pp. 911–914. doi:10.1021/ed067p911

Smith, Derek W. Inorganic Substances: A Prelude to the Study of Descriptive Inorganic Chemistry. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990.

Speight, James G. Perry's Standard Tables and Formulas for Chemical Engineers. New York: The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2003.

U. S. Department of Transportation (DOT), Transport Canada (TC), Secretariat of Transport and Communications of Mexico (SCT), and Centro de Información Química para Emergencias (CIQUIME). 2008 Emergency Response Guidebook.

Vainshtein, Boris K., Vladimir M. Fridkin, and Vladimir L. Indenbom. Structure of Crystals, 2nd edition. Modern Crystallography 2. Edited by Boris K. Vainshtein, A. A. Chernov, and L. A. Shuvalov. Berlin: Springer-Verlag, 1995.

Voigt, H. H., editor. Landolt–Börnstein—Group VI Astronomy and Astrophysics. Berlin: Springer–Verlag, 1993.

Waber, J. T., and Don T. Cromer. "Orbital Radii of Atoms and Ions." Journal of Chemical Physics, volume 42, number 12, 1965, pp. 4116–4123. doi:10.1063/1.1695904

Waldron, Kimberley A., Erin M. Fehringer, Amy E. Streeb, Jennifer E. Trosky, and Joshua J. Pearson. "Screening Percentages Based on Slater Effective Nuclear Charge as a Versatile Tool for Teaching Periodic Trends." Journal of Chemical Education, volume 78, number 5, 2001, pp. 635–639. doi:10.1021/ed078p635

Weeks, Mary Elvira, and Henry M. Leicester. Discovery of the Elements, 7th edition. Easton, PA: Journal of Chemical Education, 1968.

Yaws, Carl L. "Liquid Density of the Elements." Chemical Engineering, volume 114, number 12, 2007, pp. 44–46.

Yaws, Carl L. The Yaws Handbook of Physical Properties for Hydrocarbons and Chemicals. Houston, TX: Gulf Publishing Company, 2005.

Zefirov, Yu. V. "Comparative Analysis of Systems of van der Waals Radii." Crystallography Reports, volume 42, number 1, 1997, pp. 111–116.

Heaven's Boulevard astronomical sky image for any location, date, and time. Personalize with a picture and message. Great gift for birthdays, anniversaries, or any special event. Learn more (Link leaves KnowledgeDoor website)