Numerari from KnowledgeDoor---The scientific calculator with graphing, unit keypads, complex numbers, constants, advanced functions, user-defined keys, quick copy, and
more! Learn more (Link leaves KnowledgeDoor website)

Cobalt

Cobalt Navigation

Other Elements

By Name

By Symbol

By Number

Quantity

Cobalt Quick Reference

Click button to see citations

Notes

Symbol

Co

Atomic Number

27

Atomic Weight

Rounded

58.933

for regular calculations

Standard

58.933194 ± 0.000003

for precise calculations

Oxidation States

 5

less common

 4

less common

 3

more common with disagreement

 2

more common

 1

less common

 0

less common

-1

less common

Pauling Electronegativity

oxidation state: 2

1.88

Electron Configuration

Orbital Occupancy

[Ar] 3d7 4s2

[Ar] represents the closed-shell electron configuration of argon

Orbital Filling Order

[Ar] 4s2 3d7

[Ar] represents the closed-shell electron configuration of argon

Term Symbol

4F9/2

see expanded configuration ...

Ionization Energies

I   (1)

 7.88101 eV    

II  (2)

17.084 eV      

III (3)

33.50 ± 0.06 eV

IV  (4)

51.3 ± 0.1 eV  

see all 27 energies ...

Electron Affinity

0.6633 ± 0.0006 eV

  5350 ± 5 cm-1   

Density

liquid, 1873.15 K

7.540 g/ml 

solid, 25 °C

8.860 g/cm3

Molar Volume

solid, 298 K, 1 atm

6.67 cm3/mol

Melting Point

1 atm

1768 K

ITS-90 second-quality, secondary reference point (freezing point)

Boiling Point

1 atm

3200.15 K

Thermal Conductivity

solid

400 K, polycrystalline

 85.4 W/(m K)

300 K, polycrystalline

100 W/(m K)  

298.2 K, polycrystalline

100 W/(m K)  

273.2 K, polycrystalline

105 W/(m K)  

200 K, polycrystalline

122 W/(m K)  

see all 45 conductivities ...

Pyykkö Covalent Radius

single bond

111 pm

double bond

103 pm

triple bond

 96 pm

Atomic Radius

125 pm

Enthalpy of Fusion

1 atm

15.2 kJ/mol

Enthalpy of Vaporization

1 atm

382.4 kJ/mol

Quantity

Cobalt Atomic Structure

Notes

Ionization Energies

I   (1)

 7.88101 eV    

II  (2)

17.084 eV      

III (3)

33.50 ± 0.06 eV

IV  (4)

51.3 ± 0.1 eV  

see all 27 energies ...

Electron Affinity

0.6633 ± 0.0006 eV

  5350 ± 5 cm-1   

Electron Binding Energies

K    (1s)

7709 eV  

LI   (2s)

 925.1 eV

LII  (2p1/2)

 793.2 eV

LIII (2p3/2)

 778.1 eV

see all 7 energies ...

Electron Configuration

Orbital Occupancy

[Ar] 3d7 4s2

[Ar] represents the closed-shell electron configuration of argon

Orbital Filling Order

[Ar] 4s2 3d7

[Ar] represents the closed-shell electron configuration of argon

Term Symbol

4F9/2

see expanded configuration ...

Clementi-Raimondi Effective Nuclear Charge

1s

Orbital Exponent

26.3668

ζ

Principle Quantum Number

1

n

Effective Nuclear Charge

26.3668

Zeff = ζ × n

2s

Orbital Exponent

 9.7025

ζ

Principle Quantum Number

2

n

Effective Nuclear Charge

19.405 

Zeff = ζ × n

see all 7 effective nuclear charges ...

Screening Percentage

76.5%

Fluorescence Yields

ωK

0.388 

ωL1

0.0012

ωL2

0.0077

ωL3

0.0077

Coster-Kronig Yields

F12

0.30

F13

0.56

Quantity

Cobalt Physical Properties

Notes

Density

liquid, 1873.15 K

7.540 g/ml 

solid, 25 °C

8.860 g/cm3

Molar Mass

Rounded

58.933 g/mol

for regular calculations

Standard

58.933194 ± 0.000003 g/mol

for precise calculations

Molar Volume

solid, 298 K, 1 atm

6.67 cm3/mol

Physical Form

gray metal

Linear Thermal Expansion Coefficient

25 °C

13.0×10-6 K-1

Speed of Sound

solid, 298 K

4720 m/s

Specific Gravity

68 °F, water at 4 °C (39.2 °F)

8.92

Young's Modulus

ε-cobalt

211 GPa

Poisson's Ratio

ε-cobalt

0.320

Electrical Resistivity

solid, 295 K

5.8×10-8 Ohm m

Contact Potential

4.21 eV

Photoelectric Work Function

4.20 eV

Thermionic Work Function

4.40 eV

Mineralogical Hardness

5.0

Vickers Hardness

smelted in vacuum

293 K

1043 MN/m2

653 K

1050 MN/m2

see all 7 hardnesses ...

Reflectivity

surface polished

1.0 μm

67%

2.0 μm

72%

4.0 μm

81%

see all 6 reflectivities ...

Isothermal Bulk Modulus

300 K

191.4 GPa

Isothermal Compressibility

300 K

0.00522 GPa-1

Gram Atomic Volume

7 cm3

Quantity

Cobalt Atomic Interaction

Notes

Oxidation States

 5

less common

 4

less common

 3

more common with disagreement

 2

more common

 1

less common

 0

less common

-1

less common

Pauling Electronegativity

oxidation state: 2

1.88

Sanderson Electronegativity

oxidation state: 4

3.10

oxidation state: 3

2.56

oxidation state: 2

1.96

Allred-Rochow Electronegativity

oxidation state: 2

1.70

Configuration Energy

electron volt units

10.86 eV

Pauling units

 1.84   

Allred Electronegativity

oxidation state: 2

1.88

Ghosh-Gupta Electronegativity

3.7305 eV

Nagle Electronegativity

1.44

Pearson Absolute Electronegativity

4.3 eV

Smith Electronegativity

oxidation state: 2

1.8

Chemical Hardness

3.6 eV

Cohesive Energy

per mole

424 kJ/mol    

per atom

  4.39 eV/atom

Quantity

Cobalt Thermodynamics

Notes

Melting Point

1 atm

1768 K

ITS-90 second-quality, secondary reference point (freezing point)

Boiling Point

1 atm

3200.15 K

Thermal Conductivity

solid

400 K, polycrystalline

 85.4 W/(m K)

300 K, polycrystalline

100 W/(m K)  

298.2 K, polycrystalline

100 W/(m K)  

273.2 K, polycrystalline

105 W/(m K)  

200 K, polycrystalline

122 W/(m K)  

see all 45 conductivities ...

Critical Point

5400 K

Vapor Pressure

2925 °C

100 kPa

2482 °C

10 kPa

2150 °C

1 kPa

1892 °C

100 Pa

1687 °C

10 Pa

1517 °C

1 Pa

Curie Point

1390 K

Enthalpy of Fusion

1 atm

15.2 kJ/mol

Enthalpy of Vaporization

1 atm

382.4 kJ/mol

Isobaric Molar Heat Capacity

298.15 K, 1 bar

24.81 J/(mol K)

Isobaric Specific Heat Capacity

298.15 K, 1 bar

0.421 J/(g K)

Electronic Heat Capacity Coefficient

4.4 mJ/(mol K2)

Debye Temperature

Low Temperature Limit ( 0 K )

460 K

Room Temperature ( 298 K )

386 K

Quantity

Cobalt Identification

Notes

CAS Number

7440-48-4

ICSC Number

0782

RTECS Number

GF8750000

Quantity

Cobalt Atomic Size

Notes

Atomic Radius

125 pm

Orbital Radius

118.1 pm

Pyykkö Covalent Radius

single bond

111 pm

double bond

103 pm

triple bond

 96 pm

Cordero Covalent Radius

low spin

126 pm

high spin

150 pm

Shannon-Prewitt Crystal Radius

ion charge: +2

coordination number: 4, high spin

 72 pm  

coordination number: 5

 81 pm  

coordination number: 6

low spin

 79 pm  

high spin

 88.5 pm

coordination number: 8

104 pm  

ion charge: +3, coordination number: 6

low spin

 68.5 pm

high spin

 75 pm  

ion charge: +4

coordination number: 4

 54 pm  

coordination number: 6, high spin

 67 pm  

Shannon-Prewitt Effective Ionic Radius

ion charge: +2

coordination number: 4, high spin

58 pm  

coordination number: 5

67 pm  

coordination number: 6

low spin

65 pm  

high spin

74.5 pm

coordination number: 8

90 pm  

ion charge: +3, coordination number: 6

low spin

54.5 pm

high spin

61 pm  

ion charge: +4

coordination number: 4

40 pm  

coordination number: 6, high spin

53 pm  

Pauling Empirical Crystal Radius

ion charge: +3

63 pm

ion charge: +2

74 pm

Batsanov Crystallographic Van Der Waals Radius

2.0×102 pm

Batsanov Equilibrium Van Der Waals Radius

225 pm

Slater Atomic-Ionic Radius

135 pm

Quantity

Cobalt Crystal Structure

Notes

Allotropes

allotrope

ε-cobalt

alternate name

α-cobalt

symbol

εCo

alternate symbol

αCo

allotrope

α-cobalt

alternate name

β-cobalt

symbol

αCo

alternate symbol

βCo

Nearest Neighbor Distance

300 K, 1 atm

250 pm

Atomic Concentration

300 K, 1 atm

8.97×1022 cm-3

Quantity

Cobalt History

Notes

Discovery

date of discovery

1737 to 1738

discoverer

Georg Brandt

birth

June 26 (or July 21), 1694

death

April 29, 1768

location of discovery

Stockholm, Sweden

Origin of Element Name

origin

kobold

origin description

mythical—German for subterranean gnome or evil sprite

Origin of Element Symbol

symbol: Co

origin

cobalt

origin description

element name

U.S. Towns Named After Elements

Cobalt, Idaho

Quantity

Cobalt Abundances

Notes

Earth's Crust

2.5×101 ppm

Earth's Mantle

102 ppm

primitive mantle

Earth's Core

0.25 ppm

Bulk Earth

880 ppm

Ocean Water

8×10-5 ppm

Metalliferous Ocean Sediment

Basal

82 ppm

Ridge

105 ppm

River Water

0.0002 ppm

U.S. Coal

6.1 ppm

Human Body

3 mg

based on a 70 kg "reference man"

Human Bone

0.01 ppm to 0.04 ppm

Human Hair

0.2 ppm to 1 ppm

Human Kidney

0.035 ppm to 0.31 ppm

Human Liver

0.06 ppm to 1.1 ppm

Human Muscle

0.028 ppm to 0.65 ppm

Human Nail

<0.2 ppm

Bacteria

7.9 ppm

Ferns

0.66 ppm

Fungi

0.3 ppm to 1 ppm

Solar System

2250

number of atoms for every 106 atoms of silicon

Sun

4.92 ± 0.04

base 10 log of the number of atoms for every 1012 atoms of hydrogen

Meteorites

4.90 ± 0.01

base 10 log of the number of atoms for every 1012 atoms of hydrogen

Halley's Comet

0.3 ± 0.2 atoms

number of atoms for every 100 atoms of magnesium

Quantity

Cobalt Nomenclature

Notes

Element Names in Other Languages

French

cobalt

German

Kobalt

Italian

cobalto

Spanish

cobalto

Portuguese

cobalto

Anions or Anionic Substituent Groups

cobaltide

Cations or Cationic Substituent Groups

cobalt (general)

Co2+, cobalt(2+)

Co3+, cobalt(3+)

Ligands

cobaltido

Heteroatomic Anion

cobaltate

'a' Term—Substitutive Nomenclature

cobalta

'y' Term—Chains and Rings Nomenclature

cobalty

References    (Click the button next to a value above to see complete citation information for that entry)

Allred, A. L. "Electronegativity Values from Thermochemical Data." Journal of Inorganic and Nuclear Chemistry, volume 17, number 3-4, 1961, pp. 215–221. doi:10.1016/0022-1902(61)80142-5

Allred, A. L., and E. G. Rochow. "A Scale of Electronegativity Based on Electrostatic Force." Journal of Inorganic and Nuclear Chemistry, volume 5, number 4, 1958, pp. 264–268. doi:10.1016/0022-1902(58)80003-2

Anders, Edward, and Nicolas Grevesse. "Abundances of the Elements: Meteoritic and Solar." Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, volume 53, number 1, 1989, pp. 197–214. doi:10.1016/0016-7037(89)90286-X

Andersen, T., H. K. Haugen, and H. Hotop. "Binding Energies in Atomic Negative Ions: III." Journal of Physical and Chemical Reference Data, volume 28, number 6, 1999, pp. 1511–1533.

Barsan, Michael E., editor. NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards. Cincinnati, Ohio: NIOSH Publications, 2007.

Batsanov, S. S. "Van der Waals Radii of Elements." Inorganic Materials, volume 37, number 9, 2001, pp. 871–885. See abstract

Bearden, J. A., and A. F. Burr. "Reevaluation of X-Ray Atomic Energy Levels." Reviews of Modern Physics, volume 39, number 1, 1967, pp. 125–142. doi:10.1103/RevModPhys.39.125

Bedford, R. E., G. Bonnier, H. Maas, and F. Pavese. "Recommended Values of Temperature on the International Temperature Scale of 1990 for a Selected Set of Secondary Reference Points." Metrologia, volume 33, number 2, 1996, pp. 133–154. doi:10.1088/0026-1394/33/2/3

Bowen, H. J. M. Environmental Chemistry of the Elements. London: Academic Press, Inc., 1979.

Cardarelli, François. Materials Handbook: A Concise Desktop Reference, 2nd edition. London: Springer–Verlag, 2008.

Clementi, E., and D. L. Raimondi. "Atomic Screening Constants from SCF Functions." Journal of Chemical Physics, volume 38, number 11, 1963, pp. 2686–2689. doi:10.1063/1.1733573

Cohen, E. Richard, David R. Lide, and George L. Trigg, editors. AlP Physics Desk Reference, 3rd edition. New York: Springer-Verlag New York, Inc., 2003.

Connelly, Neil G., Ture Damhus, Richard M. Hartshorn, and Alan T. Hutton. Nomenclature of Inorganic Chemistry: IUPAC Recommendations 2005. Cambridge: RSC Publishing, 2005.

Cordero, Beatriz, Verónica Gómez, Ana E. Platero-Prats, Marc Revés, Jorge Echeverría, Eduard Cremades, Flavia Barragán, and Santiago Alvarez. "Covalent Radii Revisited." Dalton Transactions, number 21, 2008, pp 2832–2838. doi:10.1039/b801115j

Cronan, D. S. "Basal Metalliferous Sediments from the Eastern Pacific." Geological Society of America Bulletin, volume 87, number 6, 1976, pp. 928–934. doi:10.1130/0016-7606(1976)87<928:BMSFTE>2.0.CO;2

de Podesta, Michael. Understanding the Properties of Matter, 2nd edition. London: Taylor & Francis, 2002.

Dronskowski, Richard. Computational Chemistry of Solid State Materials. Weinheim, Germany: WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, 2005.

Ebbing, Darrell D., and Steven D. Gammon. General Chemistry, 8th edition. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2005.

Emsley, John. Nature's Building Blocks: An A-Z Guide to the Elements. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003.

Emsley, John. The Elements, 3rd edition. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998.

Firestone, Richard B. Table of Isotopes, 8th edition, volume 2. Edited by Virginia S. Shirley, with assistant editors Coral M. Baglin, S. Y. Frank Chu, and Jean Zipkin. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1996.

Fuggle, John C., and Nils Mårtensson. "Core-Level Binding Energies in Metals." Journal of Electron Spectroscopy and Related Phenomena, volume 21, number 3, 1980, pp. 275–281. doi:10.1016/0368-2048(80)85056-0

Ghosh, Dulal C., and Kartick Gupta. "A New Scale Of Electronegativity Of 54 Elements Of Periodic Table Based On Polarizability Of Atoms." Journal of Theoretical and Computational Chemistry, volume 5, number 4, 2006, pp. 895–911. doi:10.1142/S0219633606002726

Greenwood, N. N., and A. Earnshaw. Chemistry of the Elements, 2nd edition. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann, 1997.

Gwyn Williams. Electron Binding Energies. http://www.jlab.org/~gwyn/ebindene.html. Accessed on April 30, 2010.

Herchenroeder, J. W., and K. A. Gschneidner. "Stable, Metastable and Nonexistent Allotropes." Journal of Phase Equilibria, volume 9, number 1, 1988, pp. 2–12. doi:10.1007/BF02877443

Ho, C. Y., R. W. Powell, and P. E. Liley. "Thermal Conductivity of the Elements: A Comprehensive Review." Journal of Physical and Chemical Reference Data, volume 3, supplement 1, 1974, pp. I–1 to I–796.

Horvath, A. L. "Critical Temperature of Elements and the Periodic System." Journal of Chemical Education, volume 50, number 5, 1973, pp. 335–336. doi:10.1021/ed050p335

Huheey, James E., Ellen A. Keiter, and Richard L Keiter. Inorganic Chemistry: Principles of Structure and Reactivity, 4th edition. New York: HarperCollins College Publishers, 1993.

International Labour Organization (ILO). International Chemical Safety Card for Cobalt. http://www.ilo.org/legacy/english/protection/safework/cis/products/icsc/dtasht/_icsc07/icsc0782.htm. Accessed on May 4, 2010.

Jessberger, Elmar K., Alexander Christoforidis, and Jochen Kissel. "Aspects of the Major Element Composition of Halley's Dust." Nature, volume 332, number 21, 1988, pp. 691–695. doi:10.1038/332691a0

Kaxiras, Efthimios. Atomic and Electronic Structure of Solids. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003.

King, H. W. "Temperature-Dependent Allotropic Structures of the Elements." Bulletin of Alloy Phase Diagrams, volume 3, number 2, 1982, pp. 275–276. doi:10.1007/BF02892394

Kittel, Charles. Introduction to Solid State Physics, 8th edition. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, Inc, 2005.

Krause, M. O. "Atomic Radiative and Radiationless Yields for K and L Shells." Journal of Physical and Chemical Reference Data, volume 8, number 2, 1979, pp. 307–327.

Leopold, Doreen G., and W. C. Lineberger. "A Study of the Low-Lying Electronic States of Fe2 and Co2 by Negative Ion Photoelectron Spectroscopy." Journal of Chemical Physics, volume 85, number 1, 1986, pp. 51–55. doi:10.1063/1.451630

Li, Y.-H., and J. E. Schoonmaker. "Chemical Composition and Mineralogy of Marine Sediments." pp. 1–36 in Sediments, Diagenesis, and Sedimentary Rocks. Edited by Fred T. Mackenzie. Oxford: Elsevier Ltd., 2005.

Liboff, Richard L. Introductory Quantum Mechanics, 3rd edition. Reading, MA: Addison Wesley Longman, Inc., 1998.

Lide, David R., editor. CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, 88th edition. Boca Raton, Florida: Taylor & Francis Group, 2008.

Mann, Joseph B., Terry L. Meek, Eugene T. Knight, Joseph F. Capitani, and Leland C. Allen. "Configuration Energies of the d-Block Elements." Journal of the American Chemical Society, volume 122, number 21, 2000, pp. 5132–5137. doi:10.1021/ja9928677

Manuel, O., editor. Origin of Elements in the Solar System: Implications of Post-1957 Observations. New York: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 2000.

Marshall, James L. Discovery of the Elements: A Search for the Fundamental Principles of the Universe, 2nd edition. Boston, MA: Pearson Custom Publishing, 2002.

Martin, W. C. "Electronic Structure of the Elements." The European Physical Journal C — Particles and Fields, volume 15, number 1–4, 2000, pp. 78–79. doi:10.1007/BF02683401

McDonough, W. F. "Compositional Model for the Earth's Core." pp. 547–568 in The Mantle and Core. Edited by Richard W. Carlson. Oxford: Elsevier Ltd., 2005.

Mechtly, Eugene A. "Properties of Materials." pp. 4–1 to 4–33 in Reference Data For Engineers: Radio, Electronics, Computer, and Communications. By Mac E. Van Valkenburg, edited by Wendy M. Middleton. Woburn, MA: Butterworth-Heinemann, 2002. doi:10.1016/B978-075067291-7/50006-6

Miessler, Gary L., and Donald A. Tarr. Inorganic Chemistry, 3rd edition. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall, 2004.

Nagle, Jeffrey K. "Atomic Polarizability and Electronegativity." Journal of the American Chemical Society, volume 112, number 12, 1990, pp. 4741–4747. doi:10.1021/ja00168a019

National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH). International Chemical Safety Card for Cobalt. http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/ipcsneng/neng0782.html. Accessed on May 4, 2010.

National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH). The Registry of Toxic Effects of Chemical Substances for Cobalt. http://www.cdc.gov/niosh-rtecs/gf8583b0.html. Accessed on May 5, 2010.

Nicholas, J. V., and D. R. White. "Temperature." pp. 8–41 in Measurement of the Thermodynamic Properties of Single Phases. Edited by A. R. H. Goodwin, W. A. Wakeham, and K. N. Marsh. Amsterdam: Elsevier Science, 2003.

Orem, W. H., and R. B. Finkelman. "Coal Formation and Geochemistry." pp. 191–222 in Sediments, Diagenesis, and Sedimentary Rocks. Edited by Fred T. Mackenzie. Oxford: Elsevier Ltd., 2005.

Oxtoby, David W., H. P. Gillis, and Alan Campion. Principles of Modern Chemistry, 6th edition. Belmont, CA: Thomson Brooks/Cole, 2008.

Palme, H., and H. Beer. "Meteorites and the Composition of the Solar Photosphere." pp. 204–206 in Landolt–Börnstein—Group VI: Astronomy and Astrophysics. Edited by H. H. Voigt. New York: Springer–Verlag, 1993. doi:10.1007/10057790_59

Palme, H., and Hugh St. C. O'Neill. "Cosmochemical Estimates of Mantle Composition." pp. 1–38 in The Mantle and Core. Edited by Richard W. Carlson. Oxford: Elsevier Ltd., 2005.

Pauling, Linus. The Nature of the Chemical Bond, 3rd edition. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1960.

Pearson, Ralph G. "Absolute Electronegativity and Hardness: Application to Inorganic Chemistry." Inorganic Chemistry, volume 27, number 4, 1988, pp 734–740. doi:10.1021/ic00277a030

Pekka Pyykkö. Self-Consistent, Year-2009 Covalent Radii. http://www.chem.helsinki.fi/~pyykko/Radii09.pdf. Accessed on November 20, 2010.

Prohaska, Thomas, Johanna Irrgeher, Jacqueline Benefield, John K. Böhlke, Lesley A. Chesson, Tyler B. Coplen, Tiping Ding, Philip J. H. Dunn, Manfred Gröning, Norman E. Holden, Harro A. J. Meijer, Heiko Moossen, Antonio Possolo, Yoshio Takahashi, Jochen Vogl, Thomas Walczyk, Jun Wang, Michael E. Wieser, Shigekazu Yoneda, Xiang-Kun Zhu, and Juris Meija. "Standard Atomic Weights of the Elements 2021 (IUPAC Technical Report)." Pure and Applied Chemistry, volume 94, number 5, 2022, pp. 573–600. doi:10.1515/pac-2019-0603

Pyykkö, Pekka, and Michiko Atsumi. "Molecular Double-Bond Covalent Radii for Elements Li-E112." Chemistry - A European Journal, volume 15, number 46, 2009, pp. 12770–12779. doi:10.1002/chem.200901472

Pyykkö, Pekka, and Michiko Atsumi. "Molecular Single-Bond Covalent Radii for Elements 1-118." Chemistry - A European Journal, volume 15, number 1, 2009, pp. 186–197. doi:10.1002/chem.200800987

Pyykkö, Pekka, Sebastian Riedel, and Michael Patzschke. "Triple-Bond Covalent Radii." Chemistry - A European Journal, volume 11, number 12, 2005, pp. 3511–3520. doi:10.1002/chem.200401299

Ringnes, Vivi. "Origin of the Names of Chemical Elements." Journal of Chemical Education, volume 66, number 9, 1989, pp. 731–738. doi:10.1021/ed066p731

Rohrer, Gregory S. Structure and Bonding in Crystalline Materials. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001.

Samsonov, G. V., editor. Handbook of the Physicochemical Properties of the Elements. New York: Plenum Publishing Corporation, 1968.

Sanderson, R. T. Simple Inorganic Substances. Malabar, FL: Robert E. Krieger Publishing Co., Inc., 1989.

Sanderson, R. T. "Principles of Electronegativity: Part I. General Nature." Journal of Chemical Education, volume 65, number 2, 1988, pp. 112–118. doi:10.1021/ed065p112

Sansonetti, J. E., and W. C. Martin. "Handbook of Basic Atomic Spectroscopic Data." Journal Of Physical And Chemical Reference Data, volume 34, number 4, 2005, pp. 1559–2259. doi:10.1063/1.1800011

Scientific Group Thermodata Europe (SGTE). Pure Substances: Part 1—Elements and Compounds from AgBr to Ba3N2. Edited by I. Hurtado and D. Neuschütz. Berlin: Springer-Verlag, 1999. doi:10.1007/10652891_3

Shannon, R. D. "Revised Effective Ionic Radii and Systematic Studies of Interatomic Distances in Halides and Chalcogenides." Acta Crystallographica Section A, volume 32, number 5, 1976, pp. 751–767. doi:10.1107/S0567739476001551

Silbey, Robert J., Robert A. Alberty, and Moungi G. Bawendi. Physical Chemistry, 4th edition. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2005.

Singman, Charles N. "Atomic Volume and Allotropy of the Elements." Journal of Chemical Education, volume 61, number 2, 1984, pp. 137–142. doi:10.1021/ed061p137

Slater, J. C. "Atomic Radii in Crystals." The Journal of Chemical Physics, volume 41, number 10, 1964, pp. 3199–3204. doi:10.1063/1.1725697

Smith, Derek W. "Electronegativity in Two Dimensions: Reassessment and Resolution of the Pearson-Pauling Paradox." Journal of Chemical Education, volume 67, number 11, 1990, pp. 911–914. doi:10.1021/ed067p911

Smith, Derek W. Inorganic Substances: A Prelude to the Study of Descriptive Inorganic Chemistry. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990.

Stewart, G. R. "Measurement of low-temperature specific heat." Review of Scientific Instruments, volume 54, number 1, 1983, pp. 1–11. doi:10.1063/1.1137207

Stewart, G. R. "Measurement of Low-Temperature Specific Heat." Review of Scientific Instruments, volume 54, number 1, 1983, pp. 1–11. doi:10.1063/1.1137207

Sugar, Jack, and Charles Corliss. "Atomic Energy Levels of the Iron-Period Elements: Potassium through Nickel." Journal of Physical and Chemical Reference Data, volume 14, number 2, 1985, pp. 1–664.

Tari, A. The Specific Heat of Matter at Low Temperatures. London: Imperial College Press, 2003.

Vainshtein, Boris K., Vladimir M. Fridkin, and Vladimir L. Indenbom. Structure of Crystals, 2nd edition. Modern Crystallography 2. Edited by Boris K. Vainshtein, A. A. Chernov, and L. A. Shuvalov. Berlin: Springer-Verlag, 1995.

Voigt, H. H., editor. Landolt–Börnstein—Group VI Astronomy and Astrophysics. Berlin: Springer–Verlag, 1993.

Waber, J. T., and Don T. Cromer. "Orbital Radii of Atoms and Ions." Journal of Chemical Physics, volume 42, number 12, 1965, pp. 4116–4123. doi:10.1063/1.1695904

Wagman, Donald D., William H. Evans, Vivian B. Parker, Richard H. Schumm, Iva Halow, Sylvia M. Bailey, Kenneth L. Churney, and Ralph L. Nuttall. "Thermal Conductivity of the Elements: A Comprehensive Review." Journal of Physical and Chemical Reference Data, volume 11, supplement 2, 1982, pp. 2–1 to 2–392.

Waldron, Kimberley A., Erin M. Fehringer, Amy E. Streeb, Jennifer E. Trosky, and Joshua J. Pearson. "Screening Percentages Based on Slater Effective Nuclear Charge as a Versatile Tool for Teaching Periodic Trends." Journal of Chemical Education, volume 78, number 5, 2001, pp. 635–639. doi:10.1021/ed078p635

Weeks, Mary Elvira, and Henry M. Leicester. Discovery of the Elements, 7th edition. Easton, PA: Journal of Chemical Education, 1968.

Yaws, Carl L. "Liquid Density of the Elements." Chemical Engineering, volume 114, number 12, 2007, pp. 44–46.

Yaws, Carl L. The Yaws Handbook of Physical Properties for Hydrocarbons and Chemicals. Houston, TX: Gulf Publishing Company, 2005.

Zaretsky, E. B. "Impact Response of Cobalt over the 300-1400 K Temperature Range." Journal of Applied Physics, volume 108, number 8, 2010, pp. 083525–1 to 083525–7. doi:10.1063/1.3501107

Heaven's Boulevard astronomical sky image for any location, date, and time. Personalize with a picture and message. Great gift for birthdays, anniversaries, or any special event. Learn more
(Link leaves KnowledgeDoor website)