Numerari from KnowledgeDoor---The scientific calculator with graphing, unit keypads, complex numbers, constants, advanced functions, user-defined keys, quick copy, and
more! Learn more (Link leaves KnowledgeDoor website)

Sodium

Sodium Navigation

Other Elements

By Name

By Symbol

By Number

Quantity

Sodium Quick Reference

Click button to see citations

Notes

Symbol

Na

Atomic Number

11

Atomic Weight

Rounded

22.990

for regular calculations

Standard

22.98976928 ± 0.00000002

for precise calculations

Oxidation States

 1

more common

-1

less common

Pauling Electronegativity

0.93

Electron Configuration

Orbital Occupancy

[Ne] 3s1

[Ne] represents the closed-shell electron configuration of neon

Orbital Filling Order

[Ne] 3s1

[Ne] represents the closed-shell electron configuration of neon

Term Symbol

2S1/2

see expanded configuration ...

Ionization Energies

I   (1)

 5.1390764 ± 0.0000003 eV

II  (2)

47.2867 ± 0.0003 eV      

III (3)

71.6205 ± 0.0012 eV      

IV  (4)

98.92 eV                 

see all 11 energies ...

Electron Affinity

0.547926 ± 0.000025 eV

 4419.32 ± 0.20 cm-1  

Density

liquid, 370.95 K

0.928 g/ml 

solid

25 °C

0.970 g/cm3

5 K

1.013 g/cm3

Molar Volume

solid, 298 K, 1 atm

23.78 cm3/mol

Melting Point

1 atm

370.944 K

ITS-90 second-quality, secondary reference point (freezing point)

Boiling Point

1 atm

1156.090 K

ITS-90 second-quality, secondary reference point

Thermal Conductivity

liquid, 400 K

 86.8 W/(m K)

solid

300 K

141 W/(m K)  

298.2 K

142 W/(m K)  

273.2 K

142 W/(m K)  

200 K

142 W/(m K)  

see all 53 conductivities ...

Pyykkö Covalent Radius

single bond

155 pm

double bond

160 pm

Atomic Radius

191 pm

Enthalpy of Fusion

1 atm

2.64 kJ/mol

Enthalpy of Vaporization

1 atm

89.04 kJ/mol

Quantity

Sodium Atomic Structure

Notes

Ionization Energies

I   (1)

 5.1390764 ± 0.0000003 eV

II  (2)

47.2867 ± 0.0003 eV      

III (3)

71.6205 ± 0.0012 eV      

IV  (4)

98.92 eV                 

see all 11 energies ...

Electron Affinity

0.547926 ± 0.000025 eV

 4419.32 ± 0.20 cm-1  

Electron Binding Energies

K    (1s)

1070.8 eV 

LI   (2s)

  63.5 eV 

LII  (2p1/2)

  30.65 eV

LIII (2p3/2)

  30.81 eV

Electron Configuration

Orbital Occupancy

[Ne] 3s1

[Ne] represents the closed-shell electron configuration of neon

Orbital Filling Order

[Ne] 3s1

[Ne] represents the closed-shell electron configuration of neon

Term Symbol

2S1/2

see expanded configuration ...

Clementi-Raimondi Effective Nuclear Charge

1s

Orbital Exponent

10.6259

ζ

Principle Quantum Number

1

n

Effective Nuclear Charge

10.6259

Zeff = ζ × n

2s

Orbital Exponent

 3.2857

ζ

Principle Quantum Number

2

n

Effective Nuclear Charge

 6.5714

Zeff = ζ × n

see all 4 effective nuclear charges ...

Screening Percentage

80.0%

Fluorescence Yields

ωK

0.021

Quantity

Sodium Physical Properties

Notes

Density

liquid, 370.95 K

0.928 g/ml 

solid

25 °C

0.970 g/cm3

5 K

1.013 g/cm3

Molar Mass

Rounded

22.990 g/mol

for regular calculations

Standard

22.98976928 ± 0.00000002 g/mol

for precise calculations

Molar Volume

solid, 298 K, 1 atm

23.78 cm3/mol

Physical Form

soft silvery metal

Linear Thermal Expansion Coefficient

25 °C

71×10-6 K-1

Speed of Sound

liquid

1073 K

2152.0 m/s

673 K

2368.8 m/s

110 °C, longitudinal wave

2520 m/s  

373 K

2531.4 m/s

solid

3200 m/s  

Young's Modulus

6.8 GPa

Poisson's Ratio

0.340

Electrical Resistivity

solid

200 K

2.89×10-8 Ohm m

293 K

4.77×10-8 Ohm m

300 K

4.93×10-8 Ohm m

liquid, 400 K

10.50×10-8 Ohm m

see all 55 resistivities ...

Contact Potential

1.9 eV

Photoelectric Work Function

2.28 eV

Mineralogical Hardness

0.5

Isothermal Bulk Modulus

300 K

6.8 GPa

Isothermal Compressibility

300 K

0.147 GPa-1

Gram Atomic Volume

24 cm3

Quantity

Sodium Atomic Interaction

Notes

Oxidation States

 1

more common

-1

less common

Pauling Electronegativity

0.93

Mulliken-Jaffe Electronegativity

orbitals

0.91

Sanderson Electronegativity

0.835

Allred-Rochow Electronegativity

1.01

Configuration Energy

electron volt units

5.140 eV

Pauling units

0.869   

Allen Electronegativity

0.869

Allred Electronegativity

oxidation state: 1

0.93

Boyd-Edgecombe Electronegativity

1.00

Ghosh-Gupta Electronegativity

2.4380 eV

Nagle Electronegativity

0.95

Pearson Absolute Electronegativity

2.85 eV

Smith Electronegativity

oxidation state: 1

0.95

Free Electron Fermi Surface Parameters

5 K

electron concentration

2.65×1022 cm-3

radius parameter

3.93

fermi wavevector

0.92×108 cm-1

fermi velocity

1.07×108 cm/s

fermi energy

3.23 eV

fermi temperature

3.75×104 K

Chemical Hardness

2.30 eV

Cohesive Energy

per mole

107 kJ/mol     

per atom

  1.113 eV/atom

Quantity

Sodium Thermodynamics

Notes

Melting Point

1 atm

370.944 K

ITS-90 second-quality, secondary reference point (freezing point)

Boiling Point

1 atm

1156.090 K

ITS-90 second-quality, secondary reference point

Thermal Conductivity

liquid, 400 K

 86.8 W/(m K)

solid

300 K

141 W/(m K)  

298.2 K

142 W/(m K)  

273.2 K

142 W/(m K)  

200 K

142 W/(m K)  

see all 53 conductivities ...

Critical Point

2573 K

Vapor Pressure

880.2 °C

100 kPa

673 °C

10 kPa

529 °C

1 kPa

see all 16 pressures ...

Enthalpy of Fusion

1 atm

2.64 kJ/mol

Enthalpy of Vaporization

1 atm

89.04 kJ/mol

Isobaric Molar Heat Capacity

298.15 K, 1 bar

28.230 J/(mol K)

Isobaric Specific Heat Capacity

298.15 K, 1 bar

1.228 J/(g K)

Electronic Heat Capacity Coefficient

1.38 mJ/(mol K2)

Debye Temperature

Low Temperature Limit ( 0 K )

156.5 K

Room Temperature ( 298 K )

155 K  

Quantity

Sodium Identification

Notes

CAS Number

7440-23-5

DOT Number

1428

ICSC Number

0717

RTECS Number

VY0686000

UN Number

1428

Quantity

Sodium Atomic Size

Notes

Atomic Radius

191 pm

Orbital Radius

171.3 pm

Pyykkö Covalent Radius

single bond

155 pm

double bond

160 pm

Cordero Covalent Radius

166 pm

Shannon-Prewitt Crystal Radius

ion charge: +1

coordination number: 4

113 pm

coordination number: 5

114 pm

coordination number: 6

116 pm

coordination number: 7

126 pm

coordination number: 8

132 pm

coordination number: 9

138 pm

coordination number: 12

153 pm

Shannon-Prewitt Effective Ionic Radius

ion charge: +1

coordination number: 4

 99 pm

coordination number: 5

100 pm

coordination number: 6

102 pm

coordination number: 7

112 pm

coordination number: 8

118 pm

coordination number: 9

124 pm

coordination number: 12

139 pm

Pauling Empirical Crystal Radius

ion charge: +1

95 pm

Pauling Univalent Radius

ion charge: +1

95 pm

Batsanov Crystallographic Van Der Waals Radius

2.4×102 pm

Batsanov Equilibrium Van Der Waals Radius

277 pm

Bondi Van Der Waals Radius

227 pm

Slater Atomic-Ionic Radius

180 pm

Quantity

Sodium Crystal Structure

Notes

Allotropes

allotrope

α-sodium

symbol

αNa

allotrope

β-sodium

symbol

βNa

Nearest Neighbor Distance

5 K, 1 atm

365.9 pm

Atomic Concentration

5 K, 1 atm

2.652×1022 cm-3

Quantity

Sodium History

Notes

Discovery

date of discovery

1807

discoverer

Humphry Davy

birth

December 17, 1778

death

May 29, 1829

location of discovery

London, England

Origin of Element Name

origin

sodanum

origin description

word—Medieval Latin for a headache remedy

Origin of Element Symbol

symbol: Na

origin

natrium

origin description

word—Latin for soda

U.S. Towns Named After Elements

Sodium, Wyoming

Formerly Used or Proposed Element Names and Symbols

symbol

So

Quantity

Sodium Abundances

Notes

Earth's Crust

2.36×104 ppm

Earth's Mantle

2590 ppm

primitive mantle

Bulk Earth

0.18%

Ocean Water

1.105×104 ppm

Metalliferous Ocean Sediment

Basal

2.56%

River Water

9 ppm

U.S. Coal

0.08%

Human Body

100 g

based on a 70 kg "reference man"

Human Bone

10×103 ppm

Human Hair

18 ppm to 1700 ppm

Human Kidney

10×103 ppm

Human Liver

2×103 ppm to 4×103 ppm

Human Muscle

2.6×103 ppm to 7.8×103 ppm

Human Nail

330 ppm to 3×103 ppm

Bacteria

4.6×103 ppm

Ferns

1400 ppm

Fungi

1.1×103 ppm

Solar System

5.74×104

number of atoms for every 106 atoms of silicon

Sun

6.33 ± 0.03

base 10 log of the number of atoms for every 1012 atoms of hydrogen

Moon

Terrae

0.4 ± 0.1 %

Maria

0.4 ± 0.1 %

Average

0.4%

Meteorites

6.31 ± 0.02

base 10 log of the number of atoms for every 1012 atoms of hydrogen

Halley's Comet

10 ± 6 atoms

number of atoms for every 100 atoms of magnesium

Quantity

Sodium Nomenclature

Notes

Element Names in Other Languages

French

sodium

German

Natrium

Italian

sodio

Spanish

sodio

Portuguese

sódio

Anions or Anionic Substituent Groups

sodide (general)

Na-, sodide(1-)

Cations or Cationic Substituent Groups

sodium (general)

Na+, sodium(1+)

Ligands

sodido

Na-, sodido(1-)

Heteroatomic Anion

sodate

'a' Term—Substitutive Nomenclature

soda

'y' Term—Chains and Rings Nomenclature

sody

References    (Click the button next to a value above to see complete citation information for that entry)

Albright, Thomas A., and Jeremy K. Burdett. Problems in Molecular Orbital Theory. New York: Oxford University Press, 1992.

Allen, Leland C. "Electronegativity Is the Average One-Electron Energy of the Valence-Shell Electrons in Ground-State Free Atoms." Journal of the American Chemical Society, volume 111, number 25, 1989, pp. 9003–9014. doi:10.1021/ja00207a003

Allred, A. L. "Electronegativity Values from Thermochemical Data." Journal of Inorganic and Nuclear Chemistry, volume 17, number 3-4, 1961, pp. 215–221. doi:10.1016/0022-1902(61)80142-5

Allred, A. L., and E. G. Rochow. "A Scale of Electronegativity Based on Electrostatic Force." Journal of Inorganic and Nuclear Chemistry, volume 5, number 4, 1958, pp. 264–268. doi:10.1016/0022-1902(58)80003-2

Anders, Edward, and Nicolas Grevesse. "Abundances of the Elements: Meteoritic and Solar." Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, volume 53, number 1, 1989, pp. 197–214. doi:10.1016/0016-7037(89)90286-X

Andersen, T., H. K. Haugen, and H. Hotop. "Binding Energies in Atomic Negative Ions: III." Journal of Physical and Chemical Reference Data, volume 28, number 6, 1999, pp. 1511–1533.

Batsanov, S. S. "Van der Waals Radii of Elements." Inorganic Materials, volume 37, number 9, 2001, pp. 871–885. See abstract

Bearden, J. A., and A. F. Burr. "Reevaluation of X-Ray Atomic Energy Levels." Reviews of Modern Physics, volume 39, number 1, 1967, pp. 125–142. doi:10.1103/RevModPhys.39.125

Bedford, R. E., G. Bonnier, H. Maas, and F. Pavese. "Recommended Values of Temperature on the International Temperature Scale of 1990 for a Selected Set of Secondary Reference Points." Metrologia, volume 33, number 2, 1996, pp. 133–154. doi:10.1088/0026-1394/33/2/3

Bondi, A. "Van der Waals Volumes and Radii." The Journal of Physical Chemistry, volume 68, number 3, 1964, pp. 441–451. doi:10.1021/j100785a001

Bowen, H. J. M. Environmental Chemistry of the Elements. London: Academic Press, Inc., 1979.

Boyd, Russell J., and Kenneth E. Edgecombe. "Atomic and Group Electronegativities from the Electron-Density Distributions of Molecules." Journal of the American Chemical Society, volume 110, number 13, 1988, pp 4182–4186. doi:10.1021/ja00221a014

Bratsch, Steven G. "Revised Mulliken Electronegativities: I. Calculation and Conversion to Pauling Units." Journal of Chemical Education, volume 65, number 1, 1988, pp. 34–41. doi:10.1021/ed065p34

Cardarelli, François. Materials Handbook: A Concise Desktop Reference, 2nd edition. London: Springer–Verlag, 2008.

Chi, T. C. "Electrical Resistivity of Alkali Elements." Journal of Physical and Chemical Reference Data, volume 8, number 2, 1979, pp. 339–438.

Clementi, E., and D. L. Raimondi. "Atomic Screening Constants from SCF Functions." Journal of Chemical Physics, volume 38, number 11, 1963, pp. 2686–2689. doi:10.1063/1.1733573

Cohen, E. Richard, David R. Lide, and George L. Trigg, editors. AlP Physics Desk Reference, 3rd edition. New York: Springer-Verlag New York, Inc., 2003.

Connelly, Neil G., Ture Damhus, Richard M. Hartshorn, and Alan T. Hutton. Nomenclature of Inorganic Chemistry: IUPAC Recommendations 2005. Cambridge: RSC Publishing, 2005.

Cordero, Beatriz, Verónica Gómez, Ana E. Platero-Prats, Marc Revés, Jorge Echeverría, Eduard Cremades, Flavia Barragán, and Santiago Alvarez. "Covalent Radii Revisited." Dalton Transactions, number 21, 2008, pp 2832–2838. doi:10.1039/b801115j

Cox, P. A. The Elements: Their Origin, Abundance and Distribution. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1989.

Cronan, D. S. "Basal Metalliferous Sediments from the Eastern Pacific." Geological Society of America Bulletin, volume 87, number 6, 1976, pp. 928–934. doi:10.1130/0016-7606(1976)87<928:BMSFTE>2.0.CO;2

de Podesta, Michael. Understanding the Properties of Matter, 2nd edition. London: Taylor & Francis, 2002.

Dronskowski, Richard. Computational Chemistry of Solid State Materials. Weinheim, Germany: WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, 2005.

Ebbing, Darrell D., and Steven D. Gammon. General Chemistry, 8th edition. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2005.

Emsley, John. Nature's Building Blocks: An A-Z Guide to the Elements. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003.

Emsley, John. The Elements, 3rd edition. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998.

Firestone, Richard B. Table of Isotopes, 8th edition, volume 2. Edited by Virginia S. Shirley, with assistant editors Coral M. Baglin, S. Y. Frank Chu, and Jean Zipkin. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1996.

Fuggle, John C., and Nils Mårtensson. "Core-Level Binding Energies in Metals." Journal of Electron Spectroscopy and Related Phenomena, volume 21, number 3, 1980, pp. 275–281. doi:10.1016/0368-2048(80)85056-0

Galasso, Francis S. Structure and Properties of Inorganic Solids. Oxford: Pergamon Press, 1970.

Ghosh, Dulal C., and Kartick Gupta. "A New Scale Of Electronegativity Of 54 Elements Of Periodic Table Based On Polarizability Of Atoms." Journal of Theoretical and Computational Chemistry, volume 5, number 4, 2006, pp. 895–911. doi:10.1142/S0219633606002726

Greenwood, N. N., and A. Earnshaw. Chemistry of the Elements, 2nd edition. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann, 1997.

Gwyn Williams. Electron Binding Energies. http://www.jlab.org/~gwyn/ebindene.html. Accessed on April 30, 2010.

Ho, C. Y., R. W. Powell, and P. E. Liley. "Thermal Conductivity of the Elements: A Comprehensive Review." Journal of Physical and Chemical Reference Data, volume 3, supplement 1, 1974, pp. I–1 to I–796.

Horvath, A. L. "Critical Temperature of Elements and the Periodic System." Journal of Chemical Education, volume 50, number 5, 1973, pp. 335–336. doi:10.1021/ed050p335

Huheey, James E., Ellen A. Keiter, and Richard L Keiter. Inorganic Chemistry: Principles of Structure and Reactivity, 4th edition. New York: HarperCollins College Publishers, 1993.

Ihde, Aaron J. The Development of Modern Chemistry. New York: Dover Publications, Inc., 1984.

International Labour Organization (ILO). International Chemical Safety Card for Sodium. http://www.ilo.org/legacy/english/protection/safework/cis/products/icsc/dtasht/_icsc07/icsc0717.htm. Accessed on May 5, 2010.

International Labour Organization (ILO). International Chemical Safety Card for Sodium. http://www.ilo.org/legacy/english/protection/safework/cis/products/icsc/dtasht/_icsc07/icsc0717.htm. Accessed on May 4, 2010.

Jessberger, Elmar K., Alexander Christoforidis, and Jochen Kissel. "Aspects of the Major Element Composition of Halley's Dust." Nature, volume 332, number 21, 1988, pp. 691–695. doi:10.1038/332691a0

King, H. W. "Temperature-Dependent Allotropic Structures of the Elements." Bulletin of Alloy Phase Diagrams, volume 3, number 2, 1982, pp. 275–276. doi:10.1007/BF02892394

Kittel, Charles. Introduction to Solid State Physics, 8th edition. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, Inc, 2005.

Li, Y.-H., and J. E. Schoonmaker. "Chemical Composition and Mineralogy of Marine Sediments." pp. 1–36 in Sediments, Diagenesis, and Sedimentary Rocks. Edited by Fred T. Mackenzie. Oxford: Elsevier Ltd., 2005.

Liboff, Richard L. Introductory Quantum Mechanics, 3rd edition. Reading, MA: Addison Wesley Longman, Inc., 1998.

Lide, David R., editor. CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, 88th edition. Boca Raton, Florida: Taylor & Francis Group, 2008.

Mann, Joseph B., Terry L. Meek, and Leland C. Allen. "Configuration Energies of the Main Group Elements." Journal of the American Chemical Society, volume 122, number 12, 2000, pp. 2780–2783. doi:10.1021/ja992866e

Manuel, O., editor. Origin of Elements in the Solar System: Implications of Post-1957 Observations. New York: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 2000.

Marshall, James L. Discovery of the Elements: A Search for the Fundamental Principles of the Universe, 2nd edition. Boston, MA: Pearson Custom Publishing, 2002.

Martin, W. C. "Electronic Structure of the Elements." The European Physical Journal C — Particles and Fields, volume 15, number 1–4, 2000, pp. 78–79. doi:10.1007/BF02683401

McDonough, W. F. "Compositional Model for the Earth's Core." pp. 547–568 in The Mantle and Core. Edited by Richard W. Carlson. Oxford: Elsevier Ltd., 2005.

Mechtly, Eugene A. "Properties of Materials." pp. 4–1 to 4–33 in Reference Data For Engineers: Radio, Electronics, Computer, and Communications. By Mac E. Van Valkenburg, edited by Wendy M. Middleton. Woburn, MA: Butterworth-Heinemann, 2002. doi:10.1016/B978-075067291-7/50006-6

Miessler, Gary L., and Donald A. Tarr. Inorganic Chemistry, 3rd edition. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall, 2004.

Nagle, Jeffrey K. "Atomic Polarizability and Electronegativity." Journal of the American Chemical Society, volume 112, number 12, 1990, pp. 4741–4747. doi:10.1021/ja00168a019

National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH). International Chemical Safety Card for Sodium. http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/ipcsneng/neng0717.html. Accessed on May 4, 2010.

National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH). International Chemical Safety Card for Sodium. http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/ipcsneng/neng0717.html. Accessed on May 5, 2010.

National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH). The Registry of Toxic Effects of Chemical Substances for Sodium. http://www.cdc.gov/niosh-rtecs/vya77b0.html. Accessed on May 5, 2010.

Nicholas, J. V., and D. R. White. "Temperature." pp. 8–41 in Measurement of the Thermodynamic Properties of Single Phases. Edited by A. R. H. Goodwin, W. A. Wakeham, and K. N. Marsh. Amsterdam: Elsevier Science, 2003.

Orem, W. H., and R. B. Finkelman. "Coal Formation and Geochemistry." pp. 191–222 in Sediments, Diagenesis, and Sedimentary Rocks. Edited by Fred T. Mackenzie. Oxford: Elsevier Ltd., 2005.

Oxtoby, David W., H. P. Gillis, and Alan Campion. Principles of Modern Chemistry, 6th edition. Belmont, CA: Thomson Brooks/Cole, 2008.

Palme, H., and H. Beer. "Meteorites and the Composition of the Solar Photosphere." pp. 204–206 in Landolt–Börnstein—Group VI: Astronomy and Astrophysics. Edited by H. H. Voigt. New York: Springer–Verlag, 1993. doi:10.1007/10057790_59

Palme, H., and Hugh St. C. O'Neill. "Cosmochemical Estimates of Mantle Composition." pp. 1–38 in The Mantle and Core. Edited by Richard W. Carlson. Oxford: Elsevier Ltd., 2005.

Pauling, Linus. The Nature of the Chemical Bond, 3rd edition. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1960.

Pearson, Ralph G. "Absolute Electronegativity and Hardness: Application to Inorganic Chemistry." Inorganic Chemistry, volume 27, number 4, 1988, pp 734–740. doi:10.1021/ic00277a030

Pekka Pyykkö. Self-Consistent, Year-2009 Covalent Radii. http://www.chem.helsinki.fi/~pyykko/Radii09.pdf. Accessed on November 20, 2010.

Prohaska, Thomas, Johanna Irrgeher, Jacqueline Benefield, John K. Böhlke, Lesley A. Chesson, Tyler B. Coplen, Tiping Ding, Philip J. H. Dunn, Manfred Gröning, Norman E. Holden, Harro A. J. Meijer, Heiko Moossen, Antonio Possolo, Yoshio Takahashi, Jochen Vogl, Thomas Walczyk, Jun Wang, Michael E. Wieser, Shigekazu Yoneda, Xiang-Kun Zhu, and Juris Meija. "Standard Atomic Weights of the Elements 2021 (IUPAC Technical Report)." Pure and Applied Chemistry, volume 94, number 5, 2022, pp. 573–600. doi:10.1515/pac-2019-0603

Pyykkö, Pekka, and Michiko Atsumi. "Molecular Double-Bond Covalent Radii for Elements Li-E112." Chemistry - A European Journal, volume 15, number 46, 2009, pp. 12770–12779. doi:10.1002/chem.200901472

Pyykkö, Pekka, and Michiko Atsumi. "Molecular Single-Bond Covalent Radii for Elements 1-118." Chemistry - A European Journal, volume 15, number 1, 2009, pp. 186–197. doi:10.1002/chem.200800987

Ringnes, Vivi. "Origin of the Names of Chemical Elements." Journal of Chemical Education, volume 66, number 9, 1989, pp. 731–738. doi:10.1021/ed066p731

Rohrer, Gregory S. Structure and Bonding in Crystalline Materials. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001.

Samsonov, G. V., editor. Handbook of the Physicochemical Properties of the Elements. New York: Plenum Publishing Corporation, 1968.

Sanderson, R. T. "Principles of Electronegativity: Part I. General Nature." Journal of Chemical Education, volume 65, number 2, 1988, pp. 112–118. doi:10.1021/ed065p112

Sansonetti, J. E. "Wavelengths, Transition Probabilities, and Energy Levels for the Spectra of Sodium (Na I–Na XI)." Journal of Physical and Chemical Reference Data, volume 37, number 4, 2008, pp. 1659–1763. doi:10.1063/1.2943652

Scientific Group Thermodata Europe (SGTE). Pure Substances: Part 1—Elements and Compounds from AgBr to Ba3N2. Edited by I. Hurtado and D. Neuschütz. Berlin: Springer-Verlag, 1999. doi:10.1007/10652891_3

Shannon, R. D. "Revised Effective Ionic Radii and Systematic Studies of Interatomic Distances in Halides and Chalcogenides." Acta Crystallographica Section A, volume 32, number 5, 1976, pp. 751–767. doi:10.1107/S0567739476001551

Silbey, Robert J., Robert A. Alberty, and Moungi G. Bawendi. Physical Chemistry, 4th edition. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2005.

Singman, Charles N. "Atomic Volume and Allotropy of the Elements." Journal of Chemical Education, volume 61, number 2, 1984, pp. 137–142. doi:10.1021/ed061p137

Slater, J. C. "Atomic Radii in Crystals." The Journal of Chemical Physics, volume 41, number 10, 1964, pp. 3199–3204. doi:10.1063/1.1725697

Smith, Derek W. "Electronegativity in Two Dimensions: Reassessment and Resolution of the Pearson-Pauling Paradox." Journal of Chemical Education, volume 67, number 11, 1990, pp. 911–914. doi:10.1021/ed067p911

Smith, Derek W. Inorganic Substances: A Prelude to the Study of Descriptive Inorganic Chemistry. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990.

Stewart, G. R. "Measurement of low-temperature specific heat." Review of Scientific Instruments, volume 54, number 1, 1983, pp. 1–11. doi:10.1063/1.1137207

Stewart, G. R. "Measurement of Low-Temperature Specific Heat." Review of Scientific Instruments, volume 54, number 1, 1983, pp. 1–11. doi:10.1063/1.1137207

Tari, A. The Specific Heat of Matter at Low Temperatures. London: Imperial College Press, 2003.

Turkevich, Anthony L. "The Average Chemical Composition of the Lunar Surface." pp. 1159–1168 in Proceedings of the Fourth Lunar Science Conference, volume 2. Houston, TX, March 5–8, 1973. Edited by W. A. Gose. Oxford: Pergamon Press, 1973.

U. S. Department of Transportation (DOT), Transport Canada (TC), Secretariat of Transport and Communications of Mexico (SCT), and Centro de Información Química para Emergencias (CIQUIME). 2008 Emergency Response Guidebook.

Vainshtein, Boris K., Vladimir M. Fridkin, and Vladimir L. Indenbom. Structure of Crystals, 2nd edition. Modern Crystallography 2. Edited by Boris K. Vainshtein, A. A. Chernov, and L. A. Shuvalov. Berlin: Springer-Verlag, 1995.

Voigt, H. H., editor. Landolt–Börnstein—Group VI Astronomy and Astrophysics. Berlin: Springer–Verlag, 1993.

Waber, J. T., and Don T. Cromer. "Orbital Radii of Atoms and Ions." Journal of Chemical Physics, volume 42, number 12, 1965, pp. 4116–4123. doi:10.1063/1.1695904

Waldron, Kimberley A., Erin M. Fehringer, Amy E. Streeb, Jennifer E. Trosky, and Joshua J. Pearson. "Screening Percentages Based on Slater Effective Nuclear Charge as a Versatile Tool for Teaching Periodic Trends." Journal of Chemical Education, volume 78, number 5, 2001, pp. 635–639. doi:10.1021/ed078p635

Weeks, Mary Elvira, and Henry M. Leicester. Discovery of the Elements, 7th edition. Easton, PA: Journal of Chemical Education, 1968.

Yaws, Carl L. "Liquid Density of the Elements." Chemical Engineering, volume 114, number 12, 2007, pp. 44–46.

Yaws, Carl L. The Yaws Handbook of Physical Properties for Hydrocarbons and Chemicals. Houston, TX: Gulf Publishing Company, 2005.

Zefirov, Yu. V. "Comparative Analysis of Systems of van der Waals Radii." Crystallography Reports, volume 42, number 1, 1997, pp. 111–116.

Heaven's Boulevard astronomical sky image for any location, date, and time. Personalize with a picture and message. Great gift for birthdays, anniversaries, or any special event. Learn more
(Link leaves KnowledgeDoor website)